Design Assessment Tools For Affective Learning

The domains of learning can be categorized as cognitive domain (knowledge), psychomotor domain (skills) and affective domain (attitudes). This categorization is best explained by the Taxonomy of Learning Domains formulated by a group of researchers led by Benjamin Bloom along with in 1956. The domains of learning were first developed and described between 1956-1972. Some references attribute all of the domains to Benjamin Bloom which is simply not true. While Bloom was involved in describing both the cognitive and the affective domains, he appeared as first author on the cognitive domain. As a result, this bore his name for years and was commonly known among educators as Bloom's Taxonomy even though his colleague David Krathwohl was a partner on the 1956 publication.

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The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

Volume 2 Number 2 September 2016: ISSN-2520 -5897

www.edrc-jefler.org

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Three Domains of Learning: Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor

Dr. M. Enamul Hoque1

Abstract

The domains of learning can be categorized as cognitive domain (knowledge),

psychomotor domain (skills) and affective domain (attitudes). This categorization is best

explained by the Taxonomy of Learning Domains formulated by a group of researchers led

by Benjamin Bloom along with in 1956. The domains of learning were first developed and

described between 1956-1972. Some references attribute all of the domains to Benjamin

Bloom which is simply not true. While Bloom was involved in describing both the cognitive

and the affective domains, he appeared as first author on the cognitive domain. As a result,

this bore his name for years and was commonly known among educators as Bloom's

Taxonomy even though his colleague David Krathwohl was a partner on the 1956 publication.

Introduction

Learning is everywhere. We can learn mental skills, develop our attitudes and acquire

new physical skills as we perform the activities of our daily living. Learning is not an event.

It is a process. It is the continual growth and change in the brain's architecture that results

from the many ways we take in information, process it, connect it, catalogue it, and use it

(and sometimes get rid of it). Learning can generally be categorized into three domains:

cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Within each domain are multiple levels of learning

that progress from more basic, surface-level learning to more complex, deeper-level learning.

It is interesting to note that while the cognitive taxonomy was described in 1956, and the

affective in 1964, the psychomotor domain were not fully described until the 1970s.

When publishing the description of the affective domain in 1964 Krathwohl was

named as first author, but Bloom also worked on developing this work. Krathwohl's

involvement in the development of the cognitive domain will be become important when you

look at the authors of the 2001 revisions to this taxonomy. And while I have chosen to use the

work of Anita Harrow here, there are actually two other psychomotor taxonomies to choose

from — one from E. J. Simpson (1972) and the other from R.H. Dave (1975).

Figure 1: Domain of Learning

1 Dr. Md. Enamul Hoque is Director at Educational and Development Research Council (EDRC),

Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is a curriculum Developer and Teacher Trainer.

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

Volume 2 Number 2 September 2016: ISSN-2520 -5897

www.edrc-jefler.org

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A. Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain contains learning skills predominantly related to mental

(thinking) processes. Learning processes in the cognitive domain include a hierarchy of skills

involving processing information, constructing understanding, applying knowledge, solving

problems, and conducting research. There are six levels of cognitive complexity: knowledge,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation. Bloom's taxonomy focused on

describing levels of attainments rather than process skills, and did not substantially address

the manner in which the learner proceeds from one level to the next. The cognitive domain

includes skill clusters that organize a complete, concise, and complementary listing of the

learning skills most critical for each process. The newer version (2001) of Bloom's

Taxonomy of Learning has a number of added features that can be very useful to educators as

they try to construct optimal learning experiences.

Figure 2.1: Cognitive Domain Chart

Figure 2.2: Revised Taxonomy (Krathwohl,

2001)

In the chart shown, the higher the

level, the presumably more complex

mental operation is required. Higher

levels are not necessarily more desirable

than lower levels, because one cannot

achieve the higher levels without an ability

to use the lower levels. As one moves up

into higher levels, however, the more

applicable the skills are to those needed in

daily life. The cognitive domain contains

learning skills predominantly related to

mental (thinking) processes.

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

Volume 2 Number 2 September 2016: ISSN-2520 -5897

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Figure 3: Cognitive Domain Brain Analysis

The cognitive domain involves the development of our mental skills and the acquisition of

knowledge. The six categories under this domain are:

1. Knowledge: Knowledge is the ability to recall data and/or information.

Example: A child recites the English alphabet.

2. Comprehension: Comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning of what is

known. Example: A teacher explains a theory in his own words.

3. Application: Application is the ability to utilize an abstraction or to use knowledge

in a new situation. Example: A nurse intern applies what she learned in her

Psychology class when she talks to patients.

4. Analysis: the ability to differentiate facts and opinions.

Example: A lawyer was able to win over a case after recognizing logical fallacies in

the reasoning of the offender.

5. Synthesis: Synthesis the ability to integrate different elements or concepts in order to

form a sound pattern or structure so a new meaning can be established.

Examples: A therapist combines yoga, biofeedback and support group therapy in

creating a care plan for his patient.

6. Evaluation: Evaluation is the ability to come up with judgments about the importance

of concepts. Examples: A businessman selects the most efficient way of selling

products.

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

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Activities at Different Levels:

Bloom‟s taxonomy of learning objectives is used to define how well a skill or

competency is learned or mastered. A fuller description of Bloom‟s taxonomy is given in the

following pages but a brief summary of the activities associated with each level is given

below:

1. At Knowledge Level of Learning a student can define terms.

2. At Comprehension Level of Learning a student can work assigned problems and

can example what they did.

3. At Application Level of Learning a student recognizes what methods to use and

then use the methods to solve problems.

4. At Analysis Level of Learning a student can explain why the solution process

works.

5. At Synthesis Level of Learning a student can combine the part of a process in new

and useful ways.

6. At Evaluation Level of Learning a student can create a variety of ways to solve

the problem and then, based on established criteria, select the solution method best

suited for the problem.

Teachers and learners need to understand the hierarchy of processes and skills within

the cognitive domain so they appreciate prerequisite skills for learning as well as the way

these skills need to be transformed to master more complicated elements of discipline-

specific concept inventories. Development of learning skills should never be taken for

granted in teaching or learning new content. Skills associated with lower-level processes

should be introduced in foundation courses and elevated in intermediate-level

coursework. Skills associated with higher-level processes should be thoughtfully

introduced and reinforced in upper-division courses. Methodically invoking key learning

skills from different process areas and clusters across the cognitive domain also provides

a method for infusing richness in course activities while strengthening lifelong learning

skills. Like the Social Domain, this module serves to remind us that improved cognitive

domain performance is always possible, no matter what one's state of learning skill

development.

B. Affective Domain

Most people think of learning as an intellectual or mental function. However, learning

is not a just a cognitive (mental) function. You can also learn attitudes, behaviors, and

physical skills.The affective domain involves our feelings, emotions and attitudes. The

affective domain involves our feelings, emotions, and attitudes.

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

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Figure 4: Affective Domain

This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as

feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. This domain is

categorized into 5 sub-domains, which include:

(1). Receiving (2) Responding (3) Valuing (4) Organization (5) Characterization

1. Receiving Phenomena: The receiving is the awareness of feelings, emotions, and the

ability to utilize selected attention. Example: Listening attentively to a friend.

Listening attentively to someone; watching a movie, listening to a lecture; watching

waves crash on the sand.

2. Responding to Phenomena: Responding is active participation of the learner.

Example: Participating in a group discussion. Having a conversation; participating in

a group discussion, giving a presentation, complying with procedures, or following

directions.

3. Valuing: Valuing is the ability to see the worth of something and express it. Valuing

is concerned with the worth you attach to a particular object, phenomenon, behavior,

or piece of information. This level ranges from simple acceptance to the more

complex state of commitment.

Simpler acceptance may include your desire for a team to improve its skills,

while more complex level of commitment may include taking responsibly for the

overall improvement of the team.

Examples: Proposing a plan to improve team skills, supporting ideas to increase

proficiency, or informing leaders of possible issues. It is the ability to see the worth of

something and express it. Example: An activist shares his ideas on the increase in

salary of laborers.

4. Organization: ability to prioritize a value over another and create a unique value

system. Example: A teenager spends more time in her studies than with her boyfriend.

5. Characterization: the ability to internalize values and let them control the person`s

behaviour. Example: A man marries a woman not for her looks but for what she is.

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

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Figure 5: Affective Domain Level

This domain forms a hierarchical structure and is arranged from simpler feelings to

those that are more complex. This hierarchical structure is based on the principle of

internalization. Internalization refers to the process whereby your affect toward something

goes from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is internalized and

consistently guides or controls your behavior. Therefore, with movement to more complexity,

you become more involved, committed, and internally motivated.

C. Psychomotor Domain

Psychomotor objectives are those specific to discreet physical functions, reflex

actions and interpretive movements. It is interesting to note that while the cognitive

taxonomy was described in 1956, and the affective in 1964, the psychomotor domain were

not fully described until the 1970s.

Figure 6: Psychomotor Domain Layout

Traditionally, these types of objectives are concerned with the physically encoding of

information, with movement and/or with activities where the gross and fine muscles are used

for expressing or interpreting information or concepts. This area also refers to natural,

autonomic responses or reflexes. The psychomotor domain is comprised of utilizing motor

skills and coordinating them. The seven categories under this include:

1. Perception: the ability to apply sensory information to motor activity. Example: A

cook adjusts the heat of stove to achieve the right temperature of the dish.

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

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2. Set: the readiness to act. Example: An obese person displays motivation in

performing planned exercise.

3. Guided Response: the ability to imitate a displayed behavior or to utilize trial and

error. Example: A person follows the manual in operating a machine.

4. Mechanism: the ability to convert learned responses into habitual actions with

proficiency and confidence. Example: A mother was able to cook a delicious meal

after practicing how to cook it.

5. Complex Overt Response: the ability to skilfully perform complex patterns of

actions. Example: Typing a report on a computer without looking at the keyboard.

6. Adaptation: the ability to modify learned skills to meet special events. Example: A

designer uses plastic bottles to create a dress.

7. Origination: creating new movement patterns for a specific situation. Example: A

choreographer creates a new dance routine.

Other Psychomotor Domains As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a

compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is

by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave (1975) developed this taxonomy:

 Imitation - Observing and copying someone else.

 Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a skill.

 Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without

the presence of the original source.

 Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently.

 Naturalization - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently

and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.

Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of

coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:

 Reflex movements - Automatic reactions.

 Basic fundamental movement - Simple movements that can build to more complex

sets of movements.

 Perceptual - Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements.

 Physical activities - Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility.

 Skilled movements - Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.

 Non-discursive communication - Body language.

Conclusion

Humans are lifelong learners. From birth onward we learn and assimilate what we have

just learned into what we already know. Learning in the Geosciences, like all learning, can be

catagorized into the domains of concept knowledge, how we view ourselves as learners and

the skills we need to engage in the activities of geoscientists. As early as 1956 Educational

Psychologist Benjamin Bloom divided what and how we learn into three separate domains of

learning. Cognitive Domain includes content knowledge and the development of intellectual

skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve

The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER)

Volume 2 Number 2 September 2016: ISSN-2520 -5897

www.edrc-jefler.org

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developing intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, starting from the

simplest behavior (recalling facts) to the most complex (Evaluation). The Affective domain

includes feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The

University of Dayton, School of Law Affective Domain website describes each catagory in

the domain and provides illustrative examples and keywords for the cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor domains. The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination,

and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is

measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.

References

1. Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl, D.R. (eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching

and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York:

Longman.

2. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956).

Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook

1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

3. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn:

Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

4. Dave, R.H. (1975). Developing and writing behavioral objectives. (R J Armstrong, ed.)

Educational Innovators Press.

5. Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay

Co.

6. Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational

objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook II: Affective domain. New

York: David McKay Co.

7. References Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2000). A taxonomy for

learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational

objectives. New York: Longman.

8. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. UK:

Cambridge University Press.

... Instead, the focus is on cognitive skills, interpersonal skills and technical skills (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009;Geisinger, 2016). As seen from the three-domain model (TDM) (Bloom, 1956;Hoque, 2016), the abilities that need to be learned in the 21st century correspond to cognitive, affective, psychomotor and other learning fields. As shown in the above literature, TDM can help determine the education elements in eSport. ...

... However, no current research has pointed out the educational values of eSport games, so this study was based on cognitive, affective and psychomotor (Bloom, 1956;Hoque, 2016), using a three-domain model (TDM) to construct an eSport 5 Cs educational value scale with reliability and validity. This study found that eSport games can help cultivate players' 5 Cs education values of cooperative attitude, communication skills, critical thinking, self-confidence and continuous improvement attitude. ...

With the growing popularity of eSport games, eSport-related issues have gradually gained attention and discussion in academic research. However, the positive benefits (values) brought by playing eSport have not received too much attention in current research. Therefore, after reviewing related research in the past, this study proposed that eSport has the 5 Cs educational Value of cultivating the cooperative attitude, communication skills, critical thinking, self-confidence and continuous improvement attitude based on the three-domain model (TDM) of cognitive, affective and psychomotor, and developed an eSport educational values scale. In this study, a conceptual sampling method was adopted and players with eSport experience were invited to fill out the questionnaire. A total of 316 participants filled out the questionnaire, 51 invalid samples were deleted, the number of effective participants was 265, and the effective recovery rate was 83.9%. Then SPSS 23.0 and AMOS 20.0 were used to analyze the reliability and validity of the scale, and the verification results show the scale developed by this study has good reliability and validity. In addition, in this study, it was also found that the participants had a positive view (M 3.9) on the 5 Cs educational value of the MOBA type eSport, which shows that eSport is not only a casual game, moderate playing this game can also bring educational significance to players.

... The skill in question is the ability of students to be able to understand every knowledge gained comprehensively by students so that they can implement every knowledge they have. The affective aspect is explained as a person's ability to be able to control feelings, emotions and attitudes during an activity (Hoque, 2016). Aziz et al. (2017) added that in Indonesia, the affective aspect is one aspect that generally students are weak in mastering these abilities. ...

This study aims to analyze the effect of implementing the teaching factory on readiness to work through the competence of students. This research was conducted at SMKN 2 Mojokerto. This research is an ex-post facto research. The population of this study were students of class XI and class XII of the catering service program at SMKN 2 Mojokerto, totaling 193 students. The research sampling technique was simple random sampling and calculated using the Slovin formula, so that the number of research samples was 130 students. The data analysis technique used path analysis. Research data collection uses a questionnaire instrument on the variables of teaching factory implementation and readiness to work, while for competence using tests and observation sheets. Before being distributed to research respondents, a validation test was first conducted on each research instrument. In line with the objectives, the results of the study show that: (1) the implementation of the teaching factory has a positive effect on the competence of students at SMKN 2 Mojokerto; (2) The implementation of the teaching factory has a positive effect on the readiness to work of the students at SMKN 2 Mojokerto; (3) The competence of students has a positive effect on the readiness to work of students at SMKN 2 Mojokerto; and (4) the implementation of the teaching factory has a positive effect on the readiness to work of students at SMKN 2 Mojokerto through the competence of students.

... In educational application studies, learning effects can be categorized into three domains: the cognitive domain which refers to knowledge and mental skills, the psychomotor domain which refers to motor skills, and the affective domain which refers to feelings and attitudes [22]. In addition, we analyzed retention effects since this is a core focus in educational research. ...

Augmented Reality (AR) learning games, on average, have been shown to have a positive impact on student learning. However, the exploration of AR learning games in special education settings, where accessibility is a concern, has not been well explored. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the use of AR games in accessible learning applications and to provide a comprehensive understanding of its advantages over traditional learning approaches. In this paper, we present our systematic review of previous studies included in major databases in the past decade. We explored the characteristics of user evaluation, learning effects on students, and features of implemented systems mentioned in the literature. The results showed that AR game applications can promote students learning activities from three perspectives: cognitive, affective, and retention. We also found there were still several drawbacks to current AR learning game designs for special needs despite the positive effects associated with AR game use. Based on our findings, we propose potential design strategies for future AR learning games for accessible education.

... The affective domain involves our feelings, emotions, and attitudes. This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes (Hoque, 2016) ...

... This required further "translation" of these strategies into an educational paradigm, using well-recognised adult learning principles [19,20]. A modified form of Bloom's taxonomy of learning [21] suggests division into three domains of learning: cognitive, affective and psychomotor, commonly represented in the form of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The importance of this approach is that educational activities can be aligned [22] to the learners' needs (barriers and facilitators identified in the TDF) and to intended outcomes (engagement with and use of the tool and matched treatments). ...

Background Stratified care involves subgrouping patients based on key characteristics, e.g. prognostic risk, and matching these subgroups to early treatment options. The STarT-MSK programme developed and tested a new stratified primary care intervention for patients with common musculoskeletal (MSK) conditions in general practice. Stratified care involves changing General Practitioners' (GPs) behaviour, away from the current 'stepped' care approach to identifying early treatment options matched to patients' risk of persistent pain. Changing healthcare practice is challenging, and to aid the successful delivery of stratified care, education and support for GPs was required. This paper details the iterative development of a clinician support package throughout the lifespan of the programme, to support GPs in delivering the stratified care intervention. We argue that clinician support is a crucial aspect of the intervention itself, which is often overlooked. Methods Qualitative research with patients and GPs identified barriers and facilitators to the adoption of stratified care, which were mapped onto the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF). Identified domains were 'translated' into an educational paradigm, and an initial version of the support package developed. This was further refined following a feasibility and pilot RCT, and a finalised support package was developed for the main RCT. Results The clinician support package comprised face-to-face sessions combining adult-learning principles with behaviour change theory in a multimethod approach, which included group discussion, simulated consultations, patient vignettes and model consultation videos. Structured support for GPs was crucial to facilitate fidelity and, ultimately, a successful trial. Clinician support is a two-way process– the study team can learn from and adapt to specific local factors and issues not previously identified. The support from senior clinicians was required to ensure 'buy in'. Monitoring of GP performance, provision of regular feedback and remedial support are important aspects of effective clinician support. Conclusion Designing effective clinician support from the onset of trial intervention design, in an evidence-based, theory-informed manner, is crucial to encourage active engagement and intervention fidelity within the trial, enabling the delivery of a robust and reliable proof-of-principle trial. We offer practical recommendations for future general practice interventions.

... 5). El campo afectivo involucra sentimientos, emociones y actitudes hacia el aprendizaje (Hoque, 2016). La figura 4 muestra la taxonomía del aprendizaje del campo afectivo de Krathwohl, la descripción de cada uno de sus estadios y algunos verbos clave para reconocerlos. ...

Esta propuesta está dirigida a los investigadores, docentes, estudiantes e interesados, en instrumentar el diseño instruccional como eje rector en su proceso de adaptabilidad de los modelos educativo y pedagógico para el logro de los aprendizajes� En su elaboración, nuestra intencionalidad es doble, por un lado, ofrecer una herramienta de trabajo útil, conside- rando la gran demanda de materiales curriculares en la enseñanza, y por otro lado, plantear un tema de trabajo atractivo, relacionado con la "nueva normalidad", y al mismo tiempo que sea útil para reflexionar desde los enfoques prácticos, la importancia de la definición de modelos y enfoque de Diseño Instruccional (DI)�

Nurhidayah Azhar
Sharifah Fairuz Syed Fadzil

BIM, shortly for Building Information Modelling, is a collaborsative system for the construction industry. The strategy to encourage architecture firms to implement BIM in Malaysia is to train graduates with this technological skill. In order to improve BIM adoption in the AEC industry, students' readiness towards the adoption has to be examined. This paper explores the role of student readiness towards BIM adoption investigated using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). TAM is the popular choice among the researcher for investigating acceptance of any new technology primarily because of its robust and parsimonious nature. A study has been conducted through a self-completion online survey among the final year students from the architecture program at Malaysian Polytechnic. The result indicates that student readiness strongly influences their perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU) of BIM adoption. On the other hand, both these constructs positively influenced their behavioral intention to use BIM. This study's result has both practical and theoretical implications that have been addressed at the end.

J. V. Archana
P. S. Sreedevi

Cognitive processes, which involve thinking, behavior, memory, problem-solving, communication abilities, and other higher mental processes, are unique to humans. These along with non-cognitive skills shape the human competencies. Over the past decade, studies regarding development of cognition in children have been well-reported. These studies have linked the child's cognitive functioning with the combined process of pedagogy. Along with the teaching and the method of processing information, age of child, size of the class, and other environmental factors, such as socioeconomic status, sociocultural orientation, parent's education, nutrition, and health, also influence the development of cognition in children. The importance of cognitive development relies on the fact that cognitive functioning of children influences their social and academic performance across the lifespan. In an education system, teacher is the kingpin, and their main responsibility is to assess the child's mental as well as physical capabilities and systematically plan and organize the instructional activities necessary for the overall development of a child. This review attempts to address the role of various pedagogical methods like kindergarten, Montessori, and play-way in support of development of cognition in preschool children. Going forward the chapter concludes with the influence of other determinants in cognitive development and necessary interventions required to enhance a child's cognitive functioning.

Background: -Video-based teaching, a distance learning tools is widely beingused in the present COVID-19 pandemic. Present study compares cognitive and affective domains learning outcomes between traditional and video-based physiology lecture. Methods and material: -A total of 25female students of Applied Medical College, Prince Sattam bin Abdul Aziz University, kingdom of Saudi Arabia during 2019 were selected for the study. Physiology course consist of 45 credit hours in a fifteen-week semester. Students were evaluated by various methods for different levels of cognitive and affective domains between traditional method of endocrine physiology lecture session and video-based digestive physiology lecture session. Marks obtained by each student in all the assessment methods of cognitive and affective domains were calculated to get a total mean score and expressed in percentage and compared between the traditional and video-based physiology lecture. Results: -The total mean score for all the assessment methods of the cognitive domains in the digestive physiology lecture with video was 70% and endocrine lecture without video was 50%.The total mean score for affective domain in the digestive physiology lecture with video was 80% and endocrine lecture without video was 50%.Cognitive domain show no major difference between traditional endocrine physiology and video-based digestive physiology lecture, while student performance was good for affective domain in the lecture supported by video. Conclusion: -Video-based teaching helps the learner to achieve objectives of the different levels of affective domain compared to cognitive domain as well as compared to traditional lecture with no video. Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol.20(4) 2021 p.833-839

Developing and writing behavioral objectives